|
|
|
|
|
31st March
302
AD |
Replying to Julianus proconsul of
Africa, who had informed him of the prevalence of Manicheism in
his province, Diocletian ordered Manichean books and Manichean
sectarian leaders to be burnt. The emperor justified this decision on the
basis that the Manichees were undoing 'what once has been fixed and
established by antiquity'. |
[49], p. 222 |
|
302 or 303 AD |
Hormezed II son of Narsai
Garmanshar became king of Persia. |
[37] p. xi |
|
23rd February
303 AD |
Diocletian decrees the
destruction of all church buildings and scriptures. St. George and St.
Barbara martyred 303 A.D. Paul of Samosata, the deposed bishop of
Antioch who was educated at Edessa[35], was martyred at about this
time. Edessa again suffers a disastrous flood. |
[1], + SOC website
[33], p. 124.
[35], p. 55
[49], p. 224 |
|
28th April
303
AD |
Diocletian rounds up 268
Christians he found in Nicomedia, (the eastern Roman capital) and
he had them all murdered. Only the bishop, Anthimus was
spared. |
[49], p. 225 |
|
May
303 AD |
The walls of Edessa were
destroyed by order of Diocletian, [41]. |
[41] |
|
1st May
305
AD |
Diocletian Augustus and
Maximian Augustus each went into voluntary retirement. They left
the running of the empire, and the persecution of Christians, to the newly
promoted Constantius I Augustus and Galerius Augustus.
Galerius promoted general Severus and his nephew Maximinus Daia
each to the rank of Caesar. |
[49], p. 226 |
|
305 AD |
Anthony of Egypt moved out into
the Egyptian deserts and inaugurated the western Hellenized monastic
movement. |
[35], p. 101 |
|
306 AD |
Hilarion leaves Antony's
Anchorite community in Egypt and becomes a recluse, south of Majuma in
Palestine in the desert south of Gaza where he lived for 22 years becoming
famous for miracles of healing and attracting many disciples. Hilarion
preached in Aramaic. The scholar Jerome, wrote an account of
Hilarion's life in about 391 AD. |
[35], p. 106
[47], volume 1, pp. 140,
146 |
|
25th July
306
AD |
Died Constantius I Augustus in
York, Britain and his son, Constantine supported by the legions in
Britain was proclaimed Augustus in his place. ([5] has the year as AD
305.) |
[5], p. 65
[49], pp. 147,
229 |
|
26th October
306
AD |
Maxentius son of Maximian had
himself proclaimed emperor in Rome. He ended the persecution of Christians
in the territories he controlled, (Italy). |
[49], p. 229 |
|
309 or 310 AD |
Shabor II son of Hormezed
became king of Persia. I translate the following from the Syriac in [37],
“This man reigned for 70 years and persecuted the Church severely, killing
innumerable martyrs in the land of Persia.” |
[37] p. xi |
|
August
309 AD |
Martyrdom of Habib, a deacon of
the church at Edessa, Gurya and Shmona in Edessa during the
see of Qona, bishop of Edessa. They were buried on a hilltop called
Beth Alah Qiqla, (A strange name, probably an error, literally meaning,
'the place of God's dunghill'). [33] gives a date between AD
309-10. |
[17], pp. 72, 188
[33], pp. 83-84,
184 |
|
310 AD |
The Roman legions in Spain transferred
their allegiance to Constantine. |
[49], p. 229 |
|
310 AD |
Papa became bishop of
Seleucia-Ctesiphon capital of Persia. He sat until AD 329. |
[60], p. 30 |
|
30th April
311
AD |
Galerius Augustus publishes a
decree in the capital city, Nicomedia legalizing Christianity. This was
his last act, Galerius died on the 5th May. The decree began a
short pause in the persecution, rather than an end. |
[49], p. 229 |
|
311 AD |
Maximinus Daia instigated a
persecution of the Armenian Church. |
[44], p. 5
Eusebius, H.E.
9.8.3 |
|
25th November
311
AD |
Maximinus Daia put to death
Peter, bishop of Alexandria and many other bishops in Alexandria,
Egypt. |
[49], p. 230 |
|
7th January
312
AD |
Maximinus Daia put to death
Lucian of Antioch at Nicomedia. Lucian was a great scholar and
teacher who had many disciples at Antioch. His scholarship influenced key
members of the clergy who attended the Council of Nicaea in AD 325, [49].
It is interesting to note that Lucian was originally educated at the
School of Edessa, [35]. |
[35], p. 55
[49], p. 230
[60], p.
58 |
|
c. 28th October
312
AD |
Constantine marched south and
attacked Maxentius (who had declared himself Roman emperor in AD 306). He
defeated Maxentius' legions and Maxentius drowned whilst making his escape
across the river. |
[49], p. 231 |
|
312 - 313 AD
(AG 624) |
Bishop Cona (or Qona) of Edessa
laid the foundation of a cathedral church there. He was succeeded by
bishop Sha`ad. The source for this information is The Chronicle of
Edessa, see [38], [41] |
[17], p. 188
[33], p. 181
[38],
p. 40
[41] |
|
June
313 AD |
Edict of Milan: The emperors
Constantinus Augustus and Lucinius Augustus jointly decree
freedom of religion and worship throughout the Roman empire. This decree
effectively legalized Christianity in the whole of the Roman
empire. |
[2] Eusebius HC 10.5
[49], p.
234 |
|
June
313 AD |
Edict of Milan:
Constantinus Augustus and Lucinius Augustus decree freedom of religion and
worship. Christianity tolerated by the Roman empire. |
[2] Eusebius HE 10.5
[49],
p. 234 |
|
313 AD |
Lucinius Augustus
attacks Maximinus Daia and defeats him, whereupon Maximinus commits
suicide. |
[49], p. 237 |
|
313 AD |
Eusebius of Caesarea,
the church historian became bishop of Caesarea. He (like the other
Eusebius of Nicomedia) was Arian in theology; That is to say, he held a
lower view of the divinity of Christ than the orthodox position.
Arias of Alexandria had expressed his foolishness as follows,
“There was a time when Christ was not.” |
[39], p. 367 |
|
314 AD |
Trdat, the Arsacid
king of Armenia from AD 298 – 330 was baptized as a Christian by
Gregory the Illuminator, (who lived c. AD 240 – 332). This event
precipitated a new Armenian church hierarchy independent of the control
previously exercised by the Syrian church. Accordingly, under the
authority of the church at Caesarea, Gregory was ordained as
bishop of Ashtishat in Taron. Gregory's son Aristakes was at
the council of Nicea later in AD 325. |
[44], pp. 1,
7 |
|
August
314 AD
|
Council of
Arles. |
[7], p. 37
[49], p.
238 |
|
314 AD |
Council of Ancyra in
Galatia. |
[50], p. 278 |
|
318 or 319 AD |
Earliest dated Christian
inscription in Arabia is a Greek inscription at the Marcionite church of
Dair 'Ali, situated southeast of Damascus. |
[35], p. 54 |
|
c. 320 AD |
Bishop Sha'ad of
Edessa completes the cathedral church started by his predecessor, bishop
Qona. |
[33], p. 181 |
|
321 AD |
Sunday declared a public
holiday. |
[7], p. 40
[49], p.
237 |
|
324 AD |
Eusebius became
(Arian) bishop of Caesarea Maritima |
[7], p. 37 |
|
324 AD |
(Another) Eusebius,
(also an Arian) became bishop of Nicomedia, the Imperial
capital. |
[7], p. 37 |
|
323 or 324 AD |
Aitalaha (succeeds
Sha'ad? and) became bishop of Edessa. He built a cemetery on the
eastern side of the church in 'the year before the great Synod at Nicea'.
He died in AD 345 or 346. Aitalaha wrote a letter to the Christians in
Persia which survives in an Armenian translation. In his letter Aitalaha
says several times that his gospel quotations were made from the
separate gospels. This comment is very important for the history of
the Syriac text used in Edessa. It is the first direct evidence we have
that the four gospel format was being used by the clergy in Edessa and it
uses the 'separate gospel' terminology we encounter again in the canons of
Rabbula, a bishop of Edessa later in the 5th century. |
The Chronicle of Edessa [41]
via [38], p. 40 |
|
324 AD |
After a civil war between
Constantine and Licinius, Constantine became the sole
emperor. |
[49], p. 237 |
|
325 AD |
At this date the patriarchate
of Antioch covered a vast area of the east, including Palestine,
Phoenicia, Coele Syria, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Cilicia and included the
sees of 66 bishops and 10 chorepiscopos, (=rural bishops). This means that
Christianity at Edessa was under the control of the bishop of
Antioch at this time. It is also worth noting that the Antiochene see is
identical with the earlier Palmyrene sphere of power, suggesting why
inscriptions in the Palmyrene script have been found in Osrhoene,
Mesopotamia, [33], p. 29. |
[35], p. 65
[33], p.
29 |
|
325 AD, c. 20th May
(636
AG) |
Council of Nicaea with 318 bishops in attendance.
Constantine arrives, (c. 19th June) burns controversial papers on the fire
and begins to impose a rigid orthodoxy on the Christian Church,
effectively abolishing the freedom to interpret that had existed until
that time, [35]. Constantine smeared all dissidents as enemies of the
state and ordered their books to be burned, [35].
The Nicaean
creed was published 25th July AD 325 on Constantine's 20th anniversary
of rule. The Nicaean creed was produced in Syriac as well as in Greek,
because some of the bishops present, like Ya`qob of Nisibis, were
native Syriac speakers. I translate a Syriac copy found in [50] which
seems to me to preserve the original text of the creed:
'We
believe;
In one God. The Father
[who] holds all. Maker of heaven and of earth and of all things that are
seen and are unseen.
And in one Lord Yeshu`a
Christ the Son of God. The only child that was begotten from the Father.
He is from the being of the Father. God that [is] from God and Light that
[is] from Light, God truly, that [is] from God truly. That He was begotten
and He was not made. Son of the being of the Father, that by his hand
everything became that is in heaven and in the earth. He that because of
us sons of men, and because of our salvation, came down from heaven and he
was incarnate and he was a man. And he suffered and he rose on the third
day and he ascended to heaven. And he will come to judge the living and
the dead.
And in the Spirit of
holiness.
To those that say there is
[a time] when He was not and before He was begotten, He was not, or He was
from nothing, or they say that He is from a person or from another being,
or they reckon the Son of God to be changeable and mutable, these the
catholic and apostolic church anathematizes.'
Comment: Although the Nicaean
creed is trinitarian in structure, it is clear that Yeshu`a is still being
proclaimed in the more ancient fashion as a real man, identical with the
Creator as well as the Saviour and as someone who, as Paul testified,
possesses the full measure of godhead, (Colossians 1v19). Embellishments
of this creed added in later councils shift the emphasis towards a more
trinitarian position, where the status of Christ is subtly diluted. The
Nicaean creed also exhibits a tension between eastern and western culture:
that is to say, the Greek philosophical obsession with how Christ's
divinity subsists, in tension with the more direct and characteristically
eastern assertion that His is God. |
[2]
[5], p. 65
[35],
p. 66
[41]
[50], p. 22, line 21 ff. |
|
c. 325 AD |
Audius, ('Awd) starts
a Christian ascetic movement, (the Audiani movement) with enclaves in
Chalcis, (Syria) and in Mesopotamia. The movement was a reaction against
the intellectual and worldly attitudes of the post Nicaean
church. |
[35], p. 67 |
|
328 AD
=233 in the era of
Bostra, (see under 106 AD). |
Tomb inscription in Arabic of
Mar' al-Qais = King of the Arabs at Namara in
Arabia. |
[35], p. 50,
p97:map |
|
329 AD |
End of the see of
Papa, bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. |
[60], p. 30 |
|
333 AD |
Eusebius of Caesarea
writes his 'Theophania'. This Greek work survives only in Syriac
translation. |
[38], p. 37 |
|
335 AD |
Hilarion leaves his
desert retreat to preach among Arab nomads in southern
Palestine. |
[35], p. 101 |
|
337 AD |
Death of emperor
Constantine who was only baptized on his death bed. He was
succeeded by Constantius in the East. The empire was governed by
eastern and western Caesars after his death. Eastern emperors were Arian
and the western, anti-Arian in belief. The east was split again between
the Antiochene, (who emphasized the humanity of Christ) and the
Alexandrian, (who emphasized His Divinity). |
[7], pp. 36, 48 – 49
[60],
p. 13 |
|
337 AD |
Aaron the Ascetic or
the Monk, son of Yeni of Serug died at the great age of 118 years.
His Syriac biography was written by his disciple Paul. This biography is
preserved in only a few MSS; a complete copy dated AD 1197 can be found in
BL Add. 12174 number 7, [48] and an imperfect copy dating from about AD
1630 can be found in Mingana Syr 252 A, [46]. |
[46], volume 1, column
507
[48], volume 3, p. 1124 |
|
337 - 338 AD |
Died Ja`qob of
Nisibis, (his remains were later moved from Nisibis to Edessa).
According to [58] based upon 'Carmina Nisibene' 1 – 26 by Ephrem of
Nisibis, he was succeeded by Babu in AD 338. |
[33], p. 173
[41]
[58],
p. 30 |
|
337 - 345 AD |
Flourished Aphrahat
(also called Aphraates) who lived in Nineveh, (Mosul) in Sassanid
Persia where he produced his first ten 'Demonstrations' or homilies based
upon, and quoting the Syriac Diatessaron in AD 337, (he gives the
date in his text). Aphrahat used Jewish metaphors and seems to have known
the Jewish Talmud.
At about this time or
slightly later, Ephrem Syrus wrote hymns and a commentary on the
whole Syriac bible, (OT and NT) in Nisibis, then controlled by the Romans.
Note: The reference from 1885 expresses uncertainty about the exact gospel
text quoted by Ephrem and Aphrahat but this was certainly the Diatessaron
gospel harmony. Copyists altered some of the authors' quotations towards
later versions of the Syriac gospel text. However, enough remains of the
Diatessaron to be certain of that source. |
[38], p. 42
[32]
Layard
[25]
[33], p. 100 |
|
338 AD |
Nisibis was
(unsuccessfully) besieged by Shabor II of Persia, (the first of
three attempts). |
[33], p. 111
[58], p.
30 |
|
338 AD |
Eusebius bishop of Nicomedia
moves to Constantinople as the new bishop, (another Eusebius, not the
Caesarean).
Athanasius bishop of Alexandria. |
[7], p. 37 |
|
c. 330 AD |
Procopius a native of
Aelia (otherwise known as Jerusalem) translated the Greek services for a
congregation at Scythopolis, (Palestine II, south of Lake Galilee)
into Syriac. Since this report was written by Eusebius of Caesarea,
the event must have occurred prior to his death in AD 339. The need for
this translation demonstrates that the ordinary people in central
Palestine spoke only Syriac at this time. |
Eusebius 'Martyrs of
Palestine' via [35], p. 79 |
|
339 AD |
Mar Shimun bar Sabba,
succeeded Mar Papa and became catholicos metropolitan of Seleucia
and Ctesiphon, the royal cities of Persia. |
(Greek historian Sozomen via
Patriarch, Shah, and Caliph, pp. 25.)
[50], p. 289 note
3 |
|
Good Friday, 339 AD
([7],
[50] have the date as 341 AD.) |
The persecution under king
Shabor II (aided by Jews and Zoroastrian Magi) lasted for forty
years, and it was very severe. Massacres took place on Good Friday, AD
339: Mar Shimun or Simon Bar Sabba was arrested at Seleucia,
the Court being then at Karka d'Lidan (i.e., Susa) then he was killed with
100 other leaders of the Christian community. Miles bishop of Susa
was martyred on 13th November AD 341, [50]. There are detailed
Syriac accounts of these events recorded in reference [37]. Over the forty
years one source estimates the killing of around 16,000 martyrs,
[60] |
(Greek historian Sozomen via
Patriarch, Shah, and Caliph, pp. 25.) +SOC website.
[7],
p152
[37]
[50], pp. 289 note 3, 290 note 1
[60], p.
31 |
|
340 AD |
Gadiab (Syriac Bishop)
and Sabina (Greek Bishop) both of Beth Laphat were martyred
by king Shabor II. The dual language bishopric was a feature of Christian
communities in Persia at this time and for a long time afterward. (See the
synodal record dated AD 424 below.) |
[38], p. 31 |
|
343 AD
(Year 390 in the
era of Antioch) |
Was held the council of
Gangra. |
[50], p. 278 note
4 |
|
344 - 345 AD
(AG
656) |
Aphrahat also known as
Mar Ya`qob the Persian Sage writes a Syriac treatise entitled "An
argument of supplication" amongst a further twelve of his Demonstrations
(XI to XXII) which were completed in this year. The following year in AD
345, Aphrahat produced his twenty-third and final 'Demonstration' called
'The Cluster'. |
[31], p. vii |
|
345 AD |
The date of an inscription on
an early church building at Umm al-Jamal, (possibly called Thantia
in those days). This town was almost completely Christian and was a center
of Christianity in the region. The remains of 15 church buildings have
been discovered there. |
[35], pp. 75-76,
76:note. |
|
345 AD |
Probably to save them from
persecution, the catholicos of Babylon sent a Christian Armenian merchant
banker, Thomas of Kana, (or Thomas of Jerusalem) together with a
bishop, deacons and women and children. They arrived at Malankara on the
Malabar coast, India in 345 AD. |
[7], p. 155 (attested by
Indian inscriptions) |
|
345 or 346 AD |
Death of Aitalaha
bishop of Edessa who was succeeded by Abraham. |
[33], p. 182
[38], p.
40
[41] |
|
346 AD |
Shabor or Shahpuhr
II of Persia besieged Nisibis for the second time, again
unsuccessfully. |
[33], p. 111
[58], p.
30 |
|
c. 349 AD |
Nabu, bishop of
Nisibis was succeeded by Vologeses who sat until AD 361. This data
is from [58] based upon 'Carmina Nisibene' 1 – 26 by Ephrem of Nisibis
. |
[58], p. 30 |
|
350 AD |
Shabor or Shahpuhr
II of Persia besieged Nisibis for the third time, again
unsuccessfully. Ephrem of Nisibis then resident in that city wrote
'Carmina Nisibene' 1 – 3 during these events. |
[58], p. 30 |
|
350 AD |
Asterios a monk,
founded a coenobium, (= monastery) in Gindaros, Syria, northeast of
Antioch. |
[35], pp. 101,
104 |
|
350 AD |
Birth of Theodore,
later bishop of Mopsuestia who wrote many theological books in
Greek including a commentary on the Nicene creed, (this text survives in
Syriac translation). |
[36] |
|
c. 350 AD |
The Syriac translator of
Eusebius' church history about this time, corrected the Greek version of
H.E. 4.29 concerning the Diatessaron gospel harmony to say, “The
Diatessaron is the Mehalete (='mixed'), the
same that is in the hands of many unto this day.” This information added
by the Syriac translator tells us that the Diatessaron was a very common
gospel book in Edessa at this time. |
Wright's edition of Eusebius'
church history in Syriac via [38], p. 37 |
|
354 AD |
Christians first recorded as
celebrating Christmas on 25th December in the calendar of
Philocalus. |
'The Oxford Companion to the
Year'
Ronald Hutton's 'Stations of the Sun' |
|
354 AD |
The Parthian (Persian) army
invaded Osrhoene under the command of Nohodares. |
[33], p. 19 |
|
354 AD |
The Catholicos of the East
consecrated John of Edessa as the third bishop of
India. |
[60], p. 42 |
|
355 or 356 AD |
Abraham of Chidon, a
recluse became bishop of Edessa. |
[41] |
|
357 AD |
Hilarion, c. AD 291 -
391 returned to solitude in Egypt and then he travelled and preached in
Aramaic in Libya, Sicily and Cyprus. Hilarion's views were
different to, and opposed to the Greek ideas of monastic life. See also
under 306 AD. |
[35], p. 107 |
|
358 AD |
The Romans created a new
province called 'Palestinia Tertia' or 'Salutaris' using
territory from southern Arabia and Palestine. The provincial capital was
at Elousa. |
[35], p. 51,
p108:map. |
|
359 AD |
The Persians begin to wage
war again, [58]. They captured Amida in northern Osrhoene and
deported Christian captives back to Persia. |
[33], p. 111
[38], p.
29
[58], p. 30 |
|
359 AD |
Died Eusebius, bishop of
Emesa (Homs) in Syria. This Eusebius was a graduate of the School
of Edessa. |
[35], p. 55 |
|
360 AD |
Constantius eastern
(Arian) Caesar stayed in Edessa and died whilst returning to Rome to
oppose the revolt by Julian in November 361 AD. At this time, Abraham
of Chidon bishop of Edessa died and he was replaced at the order of
Constantius by Barse or Barsai who had previously been
bishop of Harran, (see below under AD 361). |
[7], p. 49
[33], p.
111
[41] |
|
360 AD |
The Persians capture
Shigah and deport Christian captives back to Persia. A number of
deportations also occurred both earlier, (see under AD 255 and 260) and
later, (see AD 362). |
[38], p. 29 |
|
c. 360 AD |
Flourished Gregory the
Abbot, also known as Gregory of Cyprus or Gregory the
Ihidaiya, (= 'monk'). Gregory was a monk from Palestine who was sent
to Cyprus to be abbot of the Syriac speaking monks on that island. Gregory
was a teacher of Epiphanius, who was bishop of Salamis from 367 to 403
AD.
Gregory's memre and his
letters to his friend Theodore the monk and some of his other
writings can be found preserved in about a dozen London Syriac MSS,
Mingana Syr 49 L, W, 86 M (13th century), 151 C, 348 D, 605 A,
in Vatican Syriac MSS: Vat. Syr. 123 (8th century), Vat. Syr.
629 (12th century) and in Rylands Cod. Syr. 42, (transcribed
from a 12th century east Syrian MS found in Kurdistan by A.
Mingana in 1905).
According to Vööbus, [38]
Old Syriac gospel quotations appear in an edition of Gregory's work
by Hausherr, I. 'Gregorii monachi Cyprii - De theoria sancta,' Orientalia
Christiana Analecta, tome 110, Rome 1937. The biblical texts used by
Gregory have been analyzed by Harris, J. R., 'The biblical text used by
Gregory of Cyprus' in Adler, C. and Ember, A. (eds), 'Oriental studies
published in commemoration of the fortieth anniversary ... of Paul Haupt
as director of the oriental seminary of the John Hopkins University,'
Baltimore, 1926 pp. 410 – 424. The Mingana collection's MSS have been
discussed by Mingana, A. 'A new document on Christian Monachism', in the
'Expositor' 1915, pp. 365 – 378. |
[28], p. 42
[38], volume
2, p. 53
[46], volume 1, columns 139ff., 1162 |
|
AD 361, [58]
(360 or 361
AD in [41]) |
Vologesh or
Vologeses bishop of Nisibis died. He was succeeded by
Abraham. This data is from [58] based upon 'Carmina Nisibene' 1 –
26 by Ephrem of Nisibis. |
[41]
[58], p.
30 |
|
361 AD
November |
Julian the Apostate
became eastern Caesar. During his reign, Christians were again
persecuted.
As a result of this
persecution, Mar Matta a native of Amida fled into Persian
territory with three others. They became hermits on a mountain situated 20
miles north west of Mosul. Mar Matta formed a nucleus of ascetic life
which grew. He thus became the founder of the Syrian Orthodox Monastery
of Mar Matta which was eventually built there on the same mountain,
[60]. This monastery became an important centre of learning from the sixth
century onwards. According to several sources quoted in [60], in the early
13th century, there were over 1000 monks living at Mar
Matta. |
[7], p. 40
[33], p.
111
[49], p. 239
[60], pp. 14, 71 |
|
361 AD |
Barse or Barsai
became bishop of Edessa. He sat until AD 378. For the circumstances of his
election, see above under AD 360. |
[38], p. 40 |
|
c. 361 AD |
Mashtoc, (also known
as Mesrop and Mesrob) was born. He was an Armenian ascetic who invented a
script for the Armenian language and became the first to write Christian
literature in that language. |
[44], p. 8 |
|
362 AD
March
5th |
A dated inscription at 'Anza
in the Hawran mountains records how emperor Julian the Apostate
tried to revive pagan worship in the Roman empire. (He
failed.) |
[35], p. 81 |
|
362 - 363 AD
(AG
674) |
Nisibis was invaded and fell
to the Persian king Shabor II. Many people including Ephrem of
Nisibis moved to Edessa. Roman Caesar Julian the Apostate
leaves Antioch with 65,000 troops to fight the Persians but the Romans
were defeated at Ctesiphon and Julian dies in Persia in June 363, (see
[41]). Consequently, Mesopotamia became vulnerable to Persian attack. The
new emperor Jovian cedes Nisibis and Singara to Persia as the price
for rescuing the situation, (i.e. to allow the defeated Romans and anyone
else who wanted to, to leave the area ceded to Persia).
Eugene or
Eugenius who had been settled near Nisibis since the time of the
consecration of Jacob of Edessa, (before AD 325) remained in the new
Persian territory near Nisibis but died shortly afterwards. Eugenius was
said to have been the first to introduce cenobitic monasticism into Persia
from Egypt during the reign of Constantine, [48]. Reference [38] records
that during his attack on Beth Zabhdai, Shapor II took 9,000
captives including a bishop, priests, benay qeyama (= monks) and barth
qeyama (nuns). Reference [33] has the date as AD 350, but this would seem
to be an error.
There is an interesting
on-line
article written by H. H. Mor Ignatius Zakka I. Iwas, who
is the current Syrian Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch and all the East. His
holiness describes the development of Syrian asceticism from its birth in
the anchorite traditions of voluntary eremitic life practised in Judaism
and by the early Christians. The Syrian Orthodox church is understood by
the present author to be the only part of the Syriac Christian tradition
which still has an active cenobitic ascetic tradition
today. |
Layard
[28], p.
7
[33], pp. 74-5, 87, 111
[38], p. 30
[41]
[48], volume 3, p.
1129 f. |
|
c. 362 AD |
Titus was bishop of
Bostra in Arabia during Julian's reign, (d. 378 AD). He wrote a
treatise against the Manicheans and participated in the Council of
Antioch, (see under AD 363). |
[35], p. 81 |
|
363 AD |
Councils of Laodicea
and Antioch. At Laodicea, the NT cannon was agreed, (every book was
accepted except The Revelation). At Antioch an Arian interpretation of
'homoousiou' = 'same essence' (?) was agreed. (Chabot, [50] estimates the
date of the council of Laodicea in Phrygia as AD 365.) |
[4], p. 72
[50], p. 278
note 6 |
|
February 364 AD |
Valentinian became
emperor and Valens his brother became eastern (Arian) Caesar. He
reigned until AD 378. |
[7], p.
49
[41] |
|
366 or 367 AD |
Mar Julian Saba died.
According to Philoxenus, in his Syriac letter to Patrick of Edessa,
Julian Saba had a disciple called Adelph of Edessa who was the
founder of the Messalian ascetic movement, (see reference
opposite). The Syriac literature produced by this movement greatly
influenced the development of asceticism in Mesopotamia over many
centuries. For details of this literature, see below under AD 370 and
under Gregory of Nyssa who used Messalian texts as a source for his
own ascetic writings. |
[41]
Lavenant, R., 'La
lettre a Patricius de Philoxène de Mabboug', Patr. Orien. tome 30, fasc.
5, No. 147, Publ. Brepols, Paris 1963, p. 130 f. |
|
367 until 403
AD |
Epiphanius was bishop
of Salamis or Constantia on the island of Cyprus |
[24], p. 42 |
|
369 or 370 AD |
Bishop Barsai of
Edessa added a baptistry to a church building at Edessa. |
[33], p.
182
[41] |
|
c. 370 AD |
Flourished one Simon of
Mesopotamia who was mentioned by the 5th century historian,
Theodoret. This man was one of the founders of the Messalian
movement. The epithet, Messalian derives from the Syriac verb
'sla' meaning 'to pray'. This epithet was given to the
Messalian ascetic movement because it regarded church liturgy and
the sacraments as irrelevant to spiritual progress, emphasizing instead a
living relationship with God and the achievement of inner purity. In other
words, the Messalian movement was an early example of an orthodox
Christian ascetic mysticism.
At about this time, Simon
composed a very important ascetic work called the 'Epistula Magna'
or The Great Letter. The Great Letter comprises fifty treatises and it was
a foundational text which influenced the development of asceticism in the
East for many centuries. In Syriac manuscripts, The Great Letter was
transmitted and quoted by later writers under the names of 'Abba Macarius'
or 'Macarius the Egyptian' and hence the author of this work is called
'Pseudo-Macarius'.
Simon is thought to have
lived in Mesopotamia rather than in Egypt and he must have lived before
the time of Gregory of Nyssa because Gregory adapted Simon's writings and
used them in his own works; 'De instituto Christiano' and 'In
suam ordinationem', [47]. We also know from Philoxenus' letter
to Patrick of Edessa, (see reference opposite) that the Messalian
movement began not before the death of Julian Saba in AD 366 or
367, (see above). Also, Kmosko has edited some quotations from Ephrem
of Nisibis and Epiphanius of Salamis, see reference opposite.
These men both wrote criticizing the Messalian movement. This
evidences that Messalian literature must have been in circulation
well before Ephrem's death in AD 373. Hence, we can be reasonably
confident, and date the composition of the Great Letter to c. AD 370. The
Great Letter was translated into Syriac at an early date between c. AD 370
when it was composed and AD 534, the date of the earliest surviving Syriac
manuscript copy.
Editions and translations of
the original Greek text of the Great Letter are available in many modern
languages. A recent English translation with an edition of the Greek text
is available edited by Maloney, see reference opposite. Very ancient
Syriac and Arabic translations of The Great Letter have also been edited.
A very thorough critical edition of the Syriac text has been edited by
Werner Strothmann with a German translation, see reference opposite. His
edition takes into account many very early MSS, for example; BL Add. 12175
dated AD 534, f. 215a onwards, BL Add. 17166 and 17173 of the
6th century, BL Add. 14612 of the 6th or
7th century, Cod. Vat. Syr. 122 dated AD 769, BL Add. 18814 of
the 9th century and BL Add. 17183 of the 10th
century, Mingana Syr 330 D, E & F dated around AD 1300 and Cod. Vat.
Syr. 121 dated AD 1576. The gospel quotations within the Syriac
translation show that an Old Syriac gospel text was familiar to the
translator. The Syriac text type is similar to the Sinaitic and Curetonian
gospels, i.e. an Old Syriac gospel text translated from the
Greek. |
[47], volume 3, p. 52
ff.
Lavenant, R., 'La lettre a
Patricius de Philoxène de Mabboug', Patr. Orient. tome 30, fasc. 5, No.
147, Publ. Brepols, Paris 1963, p. 130 f.
'Liber Graduum' PS 3, Paris,
1926
Maloney, George A., 'The
fifty spiritual homilies ; The great letter / Pseudo-Macarius', Publ. New
York, Paulist Press, c1992.
Strothmann, W. 'Die Syrische
überlieferung der schriften des Makarios herausgegeben von Werner
Strothmann' Publ. Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz, 1981 |
|
c. 370 AD |
Lucius was (Arian)
bishop of Alexandria at this time. He sent 11 Egyptian bishops into exile
and is reputed to have killed some of them. |
[35], pp. 98 -
99 |
|
372 AD |
Emperor Valens visits
Edessa and attempts to kill all non-Arian Christians but is dissuaded
because of the large numbers of orthodox confessors. Barsai was
bishop of Edessa at this time. During this time he murdered Eusebius
bishop metropolitan of Samosata, [48]. |
[33], pp. 91, 175
[48],
volume 3, p. 1127 |
|
Valens' reign, probably c 372
AD. |
Protogenes of
Edessa, (later bishop of Harran) sets up a boys school in Egypt whilst
in exile there. This shows a link of learning between Edessa and Egypt at
this time. |
Theodoret, (see below
under 423 AD) 'Ecclesiastical history' - via [33], p. 149 |
|
373 AD |
An Egyptian monk,
Ammonius from Canopus near Alexandria visited Sinai where,
"he found many anchorites living there under a superior..". He
relates their monastic lifestyle. John Chrysostom also reports the
same kind of reclusive monks living in the vicinity of Antioch in
Syria. |
[35], p. 104 |
|
June 373 AD
([25] has 378
AD) |
Death of Ephrem of
Nisibis. Ephrem wrote a commentary upon the Syriac Diatessaron.
Although Ephrem would have grown up with the Diatessaron in
Nisibis. Ephrem's approach to the Diatessaron in his commentary is
essentially critical; He often compares its readings with 'the Greek'
which he considered a more orthodox text. Ephrem produced a vast quantity
of Syriac literature, both prose and metrical works. |
[7], p. 191
[25]
[33],
p. 148
[41] |
|
September 373
AD |
The Christians departed from
the church in Edessa which was taken over by the Arians. This situation
lasted until December AD 377. |
[41] |
|
374 AD |
The link between the Armenian
church leadership and the church of Caesarea was broken and a new link was
forged with Constantinople. |
[44], p. 7 |
|
377 AD |
Epiphanius bishop of
Salamis on the island of Cyprus from 367 to 403 AD wrote his book called,
'Against Heresies' or 'Panarion' = 'medicine box' in Greek. In this book
he refers several times to a gospel or gospels written in Syriac, (which
he, and other ancient writers in the west used to call 'Hebrew'): He says,
(haer. 29.9.4); that a gospel ‘According to the Ebionites’
was also called, ‘According to Matthew’ and that it was written
‘in Hebrew and with Hebrew letters‘. And again, (haer. 30.3.7,
30.13.2); that it was also called ‘According to the Hebrews’. And
again, (haer. 46.1.8-9); ‘It is said the Diatessaron gospel was
created by him [Tatian] which some call according to the
Hebrews.’
Epiphanius' defuse remarks
show that he was a little confused himself about the nature of the
Diatessaron. |
Hill “Diatessaron”, p.
324
[35], p. 67
Petersen “Diatessaron”, pp. 31, 39 – 41
[24], p.
42 |
|
377 AD |
Constantinople was
(unsuccessfully) besieged by invading parties of Goths and
Huns. |
[35], p. 100 |
|
378 AD |
Death of emperor
Valens. |
[33], p. 91 |
|
March 378 AD |
Barse or
Barsai, bishop of Edessa died. |
[38], p.
40
[41] |
|
378 AD |
Sahak was ordained as
the Armenian Catholicos. He sat until AD 438. |
[44], p. 8 |
|
10th
October
378 AD |
Martyrdom of `Aqebshma
and his companions by Shabor II the Persian king. These were the
last martyrs murdered by Shabor II. Vööbus states that the gospel text
used in this book of the martyrs, is Old Syriac in
character. |
Acta Mart. vol. II, p. 393
via [38], p. 42 |
|
379 AD |
King Shabor II dies in
AD 379, the persecutions, for the most part, died with him. Forty years of
terror saw more than 16,000 and perhaps as many as 250,000 Christians
killed. Shabor II was succeeded by his son Ardesher
II. |
(Greek historian Sozomen via
Patriarch, Shah, and Caliph, pp. 25.)
[22]
[37] p.
xi |
|
379 AD |
Theodosius the Great
became emperor. In the same year; Mar Eulogius became bishop
of Edessa and added a new church there. The same year, Aqaq or
Acacius became bishop of Aleppo. He sat until his death aged
110 years in AD 436, [50]. This bishop is not to be confused with Acacius,
bishop Amid who was his contemporary. |
[7], p. 49
[41]
[50],
p. 255 |
|
379 to 394 AD |
Flourished Gregory bishop
of Nyssa. Gregory wrote in Greek, but many of his works were
translated into Syriac. Gregory wrote a redaction of an earlier Greek work
of great importance for the history of Syrian mystic asceticism – the
'Epistula magna'. See further above under c. AD 370. |
Date of Gregory: http://www.copac.ac.uk/
[47], volume
3, p. 52 ff. |
|
380 AD |
Emperor Theodosius
declares one interpretation of Christianity the official religion of the
Roman empire.
This event marked a
significant hardening in the attitude of the Byzantine state to the
existence of various Christian movements and sects in the
east. |
[7], p. 41.
[35], p.
82 |
|
380 or 381 AD |
Theodosius the Great
rebuilt the city of Resaina in Osrhoene. |
[41] |
|
381 AD |
Council of
Constantinople, with 150 bishops in attendance was held in support
of the emperor's edict. The see of Constantinople struggles to become
second after Rome in an emerging hierarchy. Present at this council was an
important Syriac author, Maroutha bishop of Maipherqat or
Martyropolis, [50]. He sat until his death a little before AD
420. |
[7], p. 39
[35], p.
82
[41]
[50], p. 255 note 2 |
|
382 AD |
Evagrius Ponticus a
prolific writer in Greek abandoned his preaching ministry in Constantinople to become a monk in the Nitrian desert, Egypt. Evagrius was a key
thinker in the emerging monasticism and was influenced by the writings of
Origen. The Nitrian monastery was then led by Macarius the
Great. Evagrius wrote in Greek and
was responsible for the Hellenization of the monastic movement in
Egypt. |
[7], pp. 46,
72. |
|
383 or 384 AD |
Shabor III son of
Shabor II became king of Persia. |
[37] p. xi |
|
384 AD |
Pope Damascus
instructs his secretary Jerome to revise the Latin OT and NT, to
create the Latin Vulgate bible. |
[4], p. 72 |
|
c. 385 AD |
Egeria wrote in her
travel diary, "In this province [Palestine] there are some people who
know both Greek and Syriac, but others know only one or the other.
The bishop may know Syriac, but never uses it. He always speaks in Greek,
and has a presbyter beside him who translates the Greek into Syriac, so
that everyone can understand what he means. Similarly, the lessons read in
church have to be read in Greek, but there is always someone in attendance
to translate into Syriac so that the people can understand."
Comment: This record shows
that the language of the people of Palestine in general, and Antioch in
particular, was still Syriac in the 4th century, just as it had been
hundreds of years earlier at the time of Yeshu`a, (Jesus). Egeria's diary
shows that there were two integrated, but linguistically distinct
Christian groups worshipping in Antioch. We get the same data from earlier
inscriptions and other sources, (see under AD 244, 255 and 260). Luke in
his description of the church in Jerusalem found in his book of Acts also
paints a similar picture. He talks about two linguistically distinct
Christian groups; A Hellenistic group who spoke Greek and a Nazarene group
who spoke Syriac, (Acts 1v19, 6vv1-6, 24v5). |
From 'Egeria's
travels' via [35], pp. 79 – 80 |
|
385 AD |
Theophilus became
bishop of Alexandria, (he was the uncle of bishop Cyril). He sat
until AD 412. |
[5], p. 81 |
|
386 AD |
Flourished John
Chrysostom a presbyter (elder) at Antioch for 12 years. Later he was
elected bishop of Constantinople, (see under AD 398 below). John
Chrysostom was a very influential and widely read Christian author. He
records that the peasants living around Antioch could only understand
Syriac. Theodoret also records that Syrian monks knew only
Syriac at this time. |
John Chrysostom,
Homiliae via [35], p. 104n |
|
April
387 AD |
Mar Eulogius bishop of
Edessa died. He was succeeded by Cyrus. |
[41] |
|
388 or 389 AD |
Wuharen or Bahram IV
son of Shabor III became king of Persia. |
[37] p. xii |
|
390 AD |
Died Diodorus of
Tarsus the leader of a monastic group at Antioch and the teacher of
Theodore of Mopsuestia. This man was, and still is revered by the
Church of the East as a doctor of the church. Rassam gives the date of his
death as AD 407, but this is surely too late, [60]. |
[35], p. 55
[60], p.
58 |
|
c. 390 AD |
Died Gregory of
Cyprus, see above under AD 360. |
[46], volume 1, column
1161 |
|
c. 390 AD |
A council was convened
at Side to oppose the Messalian movement. Present at this council
was an important Syriac author, Maroutha bishop of Maipherqat or
Martyropolis. |
[58], p. 34 |
|
391 AD
([35], [60] have
392 AD) |
Religious intolerance
extended: Pagan sacrifice banned throughout the Roman empire and
Christianity becomes the official state religion of Rome. |
[7], p. 41
[35], p.
102
[60], p. 14 |
|
391 AD |
Death of Hilarion in
Cyprus, see also under 306 and 357 AD. His body was returned to the Negev
in Palestine for burial where Hesychius, one of Hilarion's
disciples had re-founded the monastic 'laura' begun by Hilarion during his
earlier residence. A 'laura' was a collection of ascetics living mostly in
solitude and who associated only occasionally. The laura had one monk who
was recognized by the others as the superior. The first laura we know
about was built up in about 345 - 350 AD by Chariton, a hermit, who
lived 8 miles NE of Jerusalem.
A biography of Hilarion was
written by Jerome. About this time, Jerome made some very
interesting remarks about the Syriac gospel in his Commentary upon
Matthew: Mt12v3 and again at Mt23v35: ‘in the gospel which the
Nazarenes and the Ebionites use’ [Latin 1] Jerome then
says at Mt27v51 that he recently translated this gospel from ‘Hebrew to
Greek’ and that many call it the ‘authentic text of Matthew’
and which he cites stating either that they were: ‘in the gospel called
According [to] Hebrews’ [Latin 2] or: ‘in the gospel written in the
Hebrew manner’ [Latin 3] - which probably means ‘written with Hebrew
letters.’
[Latin 1]: ‘In euangelio quo
utuntur Nazareni et Hebionitae’.
[Latin 2]: ‘in euangelio quod
appellatur secundum Hebraeos’.
[Latin 3]: ‘in euangelio quod scribitur
iuxta Hebraeos’
Jerome also comments on
Syriac gospels in his 'Commentary upon Isaiah' at Is18, (prologue)
that a certain variant reading was found at Lk24v39 ‘in the Hebrew
gospel read by the Nazarenes’.
Elsewhere in his work
'Against Pelagius', Jerome expands on what he sometimes meant by
the word ‘Hebrew’, he says (JerAdP III.2) ‘in the Chaldaic and
Syriac language, but with Hebrew letters’, [Latin 4].
[Latin 4]: ‘Chaldaico quidem
Syroque sermone, sed Hebraicis litteris scriptum est’.
Comment: This is the fourth
time we read about Nazarenes explicitly in high quality sources,
(see Acts 24v5 and under AD 244 and AD 260, as well as by Jerome). A fifth
account in the Nestorian Chronicle [42], which on the basis of an
inscription, (see under AD 260) certainly concerns the same sect, states
that in AD 255, the deported Nazarene Christians spoke Syriac rather than
Hebrew. Hence we can identify the Nazarene gospel as a very
important and primitive Old Syriac gospel text type which
originated from Jerusalem in the first century AD where the Nazarene
Christian sect had begun and was then transmitted from Antioch with the
Nazarene Christian communities deported to Persia in the third century AD.
Of course, the Nazarene Christians encountered by Jerome most likely still
lived near his own base in Bethlehem, Palestine.
Again, according to Eusebius,
the Christian Ebionite ascetic sect to which both Epiphanius and
Jerome also refer had an enclave in the village of Khoba, which he
said was situated, 'to the left of Damascus', [49]. The word 'Ebion' is
Hebrew rather than Aramaic, it means, 'poor' or 'distressed', (see the
definition in Jastrow's dictionary, p. 5 and a possible biblical reference
to Jerusalem based 'Ebionites' in Galatians 2v10). The Ebionite sect
worshipped on the Sabbath day (Saturday) and according to their
detractors, they did not believe in the virgin birth. Essentially they saw
Yeshu`a as only the Jewish messiah, they did not believe in His divinity.
This sect was most likely still active in southern Syria and northern
Palestine in Jerome's day, just as it had been earlier in Epiphanius' day
and earlier still in Eusebius' day. A historically significant aspect of
the Ebionite ascetic sect was that it held sway outside the cities, in
rural areas. We notice that this tendency was shared with other nascent
Christian ascetic movements present in the same geographic area of Syria
and Palestine at roughly the same time. This raises interesting
questions;
1. Was there interplay between the gospel texts used by
Ebionites, Nazarenes and the Syriac speaking monks, (like Hilarion and
Chariton) who lived in Palestine?
2. If so, over what period could this
relationship have existed? |
[35], p. 107
[38], p.
19
Petersen “Diatessaron”, pp. 40, 41, 229.4, 257, 258, 276
[42], p.
59
[49], p. 170 |
|
392 AD |
Theodore who had been
a priest at Antioch and who was trained in a monastery near Antioch by
Diodore of Tarsus, (see under AD 390) was consecrated as bishop
of Mopsuestia in Cilicia. He sat until he died in AD 428. Theodore was
a very important Greek speaking theologian whose views were greatly
admired in the Syriac speaking churches. After the christological schism
of the 5th century AD, Theodore continued to be revered by the
Church of the East, also known incorrectly as the Nestorian faction. His
works were translated from Greek to Syriac in several stages beginning in
his own lifetime. |
[52], p. 59
[60], p.
22 |
|
August
394
AD |
The body of Thomas the
Apostle was relocated to Edessa and buried in a great church bearing
his name. This was in the days of Mar Cyrus the bishop of
Edessa. |
[41] |
|
17th
January
395 AD |
The Roman empire splits
East-West after the death of emperor Theodosius I. |
[41] |
|
July
395 AD |
The Huns invade and devastate
Syria during the reigns of emperors Honorius and Arcadius
sons of Theodosius I. Mass killing depopulates the area. The Hunnish raids
are mentioned in a Syriac poem written by Cyrillona. |
[28], p. 8
[33], p.
160
[41] |
|
396 AD |
Religious intolerance
extended further: The privileges of pagan priests are removed in the Roman
empire. |
[35], p. 82 |
|
July
396 AD |
Cyrus, bishop of
Edessa died. Within one year he was succeeded by
Sylvanus. |
[41] |
|
397 AD |
Mar Shemuel and Mar Shem`un
founded the Syrian Orthodox Convent of Mar Gabriel at Qartamin in
the region of Tur `Abdin, [69]. An account of the foundation of
this monastery can be found preserved in two MSS; BL Add. 17265 (dating
from the 13th century) and in Berlin Sachau 221, (dating from
the 16th century). This foundation account was written after AD
797 and contains a number of quotations from very ancient Syriac gospel,
[38]. |
[38], p. 113 ff.
[69], p.
16, note 16 |
|
397 AD |
Council of Cathage,
The Revelation of John became an accepted book in the (Western) NT canon,
but not in the East. This book was first translated into Syriac over 100
years later. |
[4] p. 72 |
|
October
398
AD |
Sylvanus, bishop of
Edessa died. He was succeeded by Paqida one month later on
23rd November AD 398. |
[41]
[50], p. 255 note
5 |
|
398 or 399 AD |
Mar John Chrysostom
became bishop of Constantinople.
Later on, John was deposed
partly through the actions of Severianus of Gabala, who lived about
this time. Some of the homilies of Severianus survive in Syriac catenae
patria and others survive in an old Armenian translation. The text of the
gospel quotations in the Armenian seems to have been the
Diatessaron of Tatian. Ironically, his homily on the nativity of
our Lord survives in Syriac attributed to Chrysostom. Apparently, it was
attributed to Severianus by Theodoret, (Eranistes, III, in P.G.,
LXIII, 308). |
[41]
[42], pp. 40, 41,
47 |
|
23rd
November
398 AD |
Paqida succeeded
Silvanus and became bishop of Edessa, [50]. Paqida sat until his
death on 1st August AD 409. |
[50], p. 255 note
5 |
|
14th Ab AG
710
= 14th August
399 AD |
Yezdegerd I son of
Shabor III became the Sassanian emperor of Persia. |
[27] part II/2 p. 40
[37]
p. xii
Hatch 'Album', p. 171
[50], p. 254 note 2. |
|
August to September
399
AD |
King Yezdegerd I of
Persia issues a decree of toleration which enables the Christians in
Persia to recover strongly from years of severe persecution. This decree
must have happened before Ishaq became catholicos and so would have been
issued more or less immediately after he took the throne of
Persia. |
[7], p. 152 – 3.
[37] pp.
518-535, 559-560 |
|
c. August
399
AD |
Mari tells us that
Maroutha of Maipherqat assisted during the election of Ishaq of
Kashkar as the East Syrian catholicos. This happened within the first
year of the reign of Yezdegerd I which began on the 14th August
AD 399. Ishaq sat until his death which occurred in AD 411. |
[50], p. 254
[53], p.
115 |
|
399 AD |
Was born Mar Narsai
the major Syriac speaking theologian of the Church of the East. This date
is according to Barhadbeshabba `Arbaia from his history of the
church. According to Barhadbeshabba of Halvan from his, 'Cause of
the foundation of the schools', Narsai was born in `Ain Dulba near Ma`alta
and Dehok in northern Iraq. |
E. P. Siman, 'Narsai..'
Cariscript, Paris 1984, pp. 1, 5 |
|
c. 400 AD |
Maroutha bishop of
Maipherqat, (who died c. AD 420) was an important Syriac author.
Between about AD 400 and 410 he wrote a Syriac history of the martyrs of
Persia in which he quotes from an Old Syriac gospel text.
Maroutha's history of the martyrs of Persia has been edited by Paul
Bedjan, in volume II of his 'Acta martyrum et sanctorum', Published in
Paris 1891, (see [37] main text).
The city of Maipherqat was
located in the border area between Syria and Armenia, [53] it was later
called Martyropolis.
Maroutha was a man of many
talents. As well as a Syriac author and a mediator and reformer who
assisted Ishaq of Kashkar the Catholicos of the East, Maroutha was also a
physician and an important political figure. He was appointed as an
ambassador by the Byzantine Emperor Arcadius for his successful
rapprochement with the Persian ruler Yazdgard I, [53]. |
[37]
[50], p. 255
[53],
p. 115 |
|
